Silver Bow Creek, Anaconda, and the Upper Clark Fork River Basin
Westscape is a principal supplier of native shrubs to the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) Superfund sites near Butte, Anaconda, and the vast Upper Clark Fork River
Basin Restoration area of western Montana. These areas are administered by the Montana
Department of Justice’s Natural Resource Damage Program and the Montana Department
of Environmetal Quality, working together on remediation efforts.
www.deq.mt.gov/REM/MWCB/ConstructionServicesSection/SilverBowCreek/default.mcpx
.
http://doj.mt.gov/lands/naturalresource/default.asp
The region encompasses numerous reclamation sites and together form the largest
Superfund area in the U.S. The Upper Clark Fork drainage alone spans more than 22,000
square miles. Damage to the natural resources of this region were created by historical
mining and smelting operations at Butte and Anaconda. These disturbed sites are often
dominated by high levels of heavy metals and low soil pH. Remediation and reclamation
efforts by the state began in 1999 and are expected to continue well into the future. For
more information on these projects follow the state government links above. For news from
the Clark Fork Coalition, a citizens non-profit organization, go to http://www.clarkfork.org/ .
Westscape Reclamation Projects
Serviceberry Seedlings
Anaconda Uplands, Montana
Anaconda Uplands, Montana
Golden Currant and Water Birch
Silver Bow Creek, Montana
Silver Bow Creek, Montana
Silver Buffaloberry Seedlings
Silver Bow Creek, Montana
Silver Bow Creek, Montana
Dogwood and Shrubby Potentilla
Silver Bow Creek, Montana
Silver Bow Creek, Montana
Westscape Nursery August 2010
Bitterbrush Seedlings
Anaconda Uplands
Anaconda Uplands
Hailstone National Wildlife Refuge, near Rapelje, Montana
Phytoremediation of Salinity and Selenium of Surface Water within Hailstone
Basin National Wildlife Refuge x Dewatering, Cleanup, and Restoration of
Basin Reservoir and Ephemeral Tributary Inflow and Outflow Channels
In 2009, Westscape Nursery entered into a multiple year contract with the U.S.
Department of the Interior via the United States Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS) to use
plants, data, and other information garnered from its SBIR research grants (see below)
as part of a joint reclamation effort at the Hailstone National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) in
central Montana. This is a collaborative, multi-disciplinary effort between Westscape
Nursery, Montana State University, USFWS, the United States Geologic Survey (USGS),
and the USDA-NRCS Bridger Plant Materials Center. Westscape’s principal role in this
project is to provide supporting research and plant material, and to develop strategies
for future reclamation efforts and soil stabilization efforts. Westscape works closely with
Dr. James Bauder, an internationally known soil scientist and water quality expert at
Montana State University and Russell Smith, a wetlands biologist from Livingston, MT.
Basin National Wildlife Refuge x Dewatering, Cleanup, and Restoration of
Basin Reservoir and Ephemeral Tributary Inflow and Outflow Channels
In 2009, Westscape Nursery entered into a multiple year contract with the U.S.
Department of the Interior via the United States Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS) to use
plants, data, and other information garnered from its SBIR research grants (see below)
as part of a joint reclamation effort at the Hailstone National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) in
central Montana. This is a collaborative, multi-disciplinary effort between Westscape
Nursery, Montana State University, USFWS, the United States Geologic Survey (USGS),
and the USDA-NRCS Bridger Plant Materials Center. Westscape’s principal role in this
project is to provide supporting research and plant material, and to develop strategies
for future reclamation efforts and soil stabilization efforts. Westscape works closely with
Dr. James Bauder, an internationally known soil scientist and water quality expert at
Montana State University and Russell Smith, a wetlands biologist from Livingston, MT.
Hailstone Bird Mortality
Photos Courtesy of Karen Nelson, US Fish
& Wildlife Service
& Wildlife Service
Hailstone Basin is a waterfowl refuge and breeding area located approximately 3.5 miles
northeast of Rapelje, MT. This refuge has served in the past as a principal stop-over flight
for migratory birds of the Intermountain and Central Flyways. Anthropogenic factors, which
include: (1) restricted flows out of the Basin due to construction of an impoundment at the
southern end of the Basin, and (2) discharges of saline water via ephemeral tributary
channels into the basin as a consequence of long-term crop-fallow dryland cereal grain
production on the northern fringe of the Basin, have collectively contributed to
progressively increasing salinity and selenium levels within surface waters impounded
within the Basin. These circumstances of elevated salinity and selenium in surface waters
are also prevalent in seepage discharges down gradient of the existing basin
impoundment. These seepage discharges ultimately (in part) find their way to down-
gradient Halfbreed Lake National Wildlife Refuge. Water quality has deteriorated to the
point of recorded waterfowl mortality and reproduction failures.
The USFWS as well as Defenders of Wildlife Fund have both named Hailstone NWR as
one of the 10 Most Endangered Wildlife Refuges in the United States.
www.refugewatch.org/2008/07/26/toxic-reservoir-at-hailstone-nwr-in-montana/
In June, 2010 Westscape, in collaboration with Arbuckle Native Seedsters of Billings, MT
harvested large quantities of Nutall’s alkaligrass (a salt tolerant native grass species) from
the highly saline shoreline of Hailstone. In November, Westscape, working with Mark
Majerus of Native Solutions and the USDA-NRCS Bridger Plant Materials replanted the
alkaligrass along with its selected halophytes and other salt tolerant species in field-scale
demonstrations for eventual reclamation of the lake bed and basin.
northeast of Rapelje, MT. This refuge has served in the past as a principal stop-over flight
for migratory birds of the Intermountain and Central Flyways. Anthropogenic factors, which
include: (1) restricted flows out of the Basin due to construction of an impoundment at the
southern end of the Basin, and (2) discharges of saline water via ephemeral tributary
channels into the basin as a consequence of long-term crop-fallow dryland cereal grain
production on the northern fringe of the Basin, have collectively contributed to
progressively increasing salinity and selenium levels within surface waters impounded
within the Basin. These circumstances of elevated salinity and selenium in surface waters
are also prevalent in seepage discharges down gradient of the existing basin
impoundment. These seepage discharges ultimately (in part) find their way to down-
gradient Halfbreed Lake National Wildlife Refuge. Water quality has deteriorated to the
point of recorded waterfowl mortality and reproduction failures.
The USFWS as well as Defenders of Wildlife Fund have both named Hailstone NWR as
one of the 10 Most Endangered Wildlife Refuges in the United States.
www.refugewatch.org/2008/07/26/toxic-reservoir-at-hailstone-nwr-in-montana/
In June, 2010 Westscape, in collaboration with Arbuckle Native Seedsters of Billings, MT
harvested large quantities of Nutall’s alkaligrass (a salt tolerant native grass species) from
the highly saline shoreline of Hailstone. In November, Westscape, working with Mark
Majerus of Native Solutions and the USDA-NRCS Bridger Plant Materials replanted the
alkaligrass along with its selected halophytes and other salt tolerant species in field-scale
demonstrations for eventual reclamation of the lake bed and basin.
Hailstone Shoreline October 2010
Algal Mat Hailstone 2010
Water Testing Hailstone 2009
James Bauder and Russell Smith
James Bauder and Russell Smith
Water Collection Hailstone 2009
James Bauder
James Bauder
Russell Smith Hailstone 2010
Spring Transect Data Collection
Spring Transect Data Collection
Mark Majerus with Arbuckel Native Seedster
Nutall's Alkaligrass on site.
Nutall's Alkaligrass on site.
Robert Dunn and Mark Majerus
Alkali Saltgrass seed harvest.
Alkali Saltgrass seed harvest.
Hailstone Fall Seeding Plots 2010
Hailstone Fall Seeding Plots 2010
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"Cultivating Conservation with the Bridger Plant Materials Center" is an informational
DVD filmed in cooperation with Montana State University and discusses the challenges
facing conservation in Montana. The film contains beautiful footage of Montana and
includes an interview with Westscaepe Nursery. Copies of the film can be requested
from NRCS at the following link:
www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/news/features/mtpmcfilm.html
Hellroaring Creek & The Nature Conservancy
Hell Roaring Creek, Centennial Valley
Native Willow Stands
In 2009, Westscape Nursery began working with the Montana Chapter of the Nature
Conservancy in efforts to restore riparian habitat along Hell Roaring Creek in the striking
Centennial Valley of SW Montana. The Centennial Mountains form a rugged, high
mountain border between Montana and Idaho. The expansive valley below is one of the
most pristine and remote areas of Montana and is home to grizzly bear, wolves, elk, moose,
and more than 260 species of birds. Hell Roaring Creek is one of the last places on earth
where Arctic grayling trout survive. Years of intensive cattle grazing along the creek have
degraded riparian shrub habitat (principally willows) which is critical for healthy stream flow,
beaver activity, and providing suitable areas for grayling breeding. Westscape, working
with Natahn Korb of the Nature Conservancy and Scott Gillian, a Bozeman fluvial hydroligist
developed a plan for the re-establishment of native willow populations along Hell Roaring.
Since 2009, Westscape has been collecting native willow seed from the surrounding areas
and producing containerized plants for establishment in the riparian zones.
http://www.nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/states/montana/preserves/art30203.html
Conservancy in efforts to restore riparian habitat along Hell Roaring Creek in the striking
Centennial Valley of SW Montana. The Centennial Mountains form a rugged, high
mountain border between Montana and Idaho. The expansive valley below is one of the
most pristine and remote areas of Montana and is home to grizzly bear, wolves, elk, moose,
and more than 260 species of birds. Hell Roaring Creek is one of the last places on earth
where Arctic grayling trout survive. Years of intensive cattle grazing along the creek have
degraded riparian shrub habitat (principally willows) which is critical for healthy stream flow,
beaver activity, and providing suitable areas for grayling breeding. Westscape, working
with Natahn Korb of the Nature Conservancy and Scott Gillian, a Bozeman fluvial hydroligist
developed a plan for the re-establishment of native willow populations along Hell Roaring.
Since 2009, Westscape has been collecting native willow seed from the surrounding areas
and producing containerized plants for establishment in the riparian zones.
http://www.nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/states/montana/preserves/art30203.html
Hell Roaring Creek – 3,245 miles to the Atlantic Ocean !
USDA-Small Business Innovation Research Awards (SBIR)
In 2009, Westscape was awarded a Phase I USDA-SBIR grant to develop selected
halophytes (highly salt tolerant plants that function in hyper-saline environments and
can sequester salts and other elements in their tissue) and delivery systems for
phytoremediation and reclamation of land and watered impacted by coal bed
methane development (CBM) in the Powder River Basin and other areas of Montana
and Wyoming. Through its SBIR grants, Westscape is working to develop a number
of native plant species for use on saline lands. These highly competitive national
grants are designed to stimulate innovative research projects that address specific
USDA focus areas while fostering relationships with small business. In 2010
Westscape was awarded a Phase II grant to continue it development and
commercialization of these halophytes and methods for delivery. Westscape is
currently utilizing its selected halophytes and other salt tolerant plants in field-scale
demonstration plots at Hailstone National Wildlife Refuge (see above).
Some Facts about Coal Bed Methane (CBM) Development and the Powder River
Basin
The U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and other agencies have called the
rapid expansion of energy development on the Rocky Mountain Front “the single
largest environmental challenge facing the western U.S." Coal bed methane gas is a
key focus of this effort. Indeed, the Powder River Basin (PRB) of Wyoming and
Montana is an area of major interest for coal bed methane (CBM) gas exploration.
Energy giants such as British Petroleum, Marathon Oil, Anadarko, Devon Energy,
Fidelity, and many other exploration companies already have a large presence in the
region.
CBM resides in underground coal seams, trapped by the pressure of large aquifers
of water which typically contain elevated levels of salts, sodium ions, and other
elements associated with methane deposits. To release CBM gas for capture, these
saline-sodic “discharge” or “product” waters must be pumped on to the surface. In
terms of quantity, CBM wells on the Wyoming side of the PRB pumped more than 900
million barrels of discharge water to the surface in 2008 (22). Each well produces an
average of 20 tons of salt being applied to the surface. Litigation brought by the
State of Montana against Wyoming and numerous other lawsuits have delayed some
new exploration, but current exploration levels are already raising concerns regarding
degradation of soil, water, and air quality; loss of drinking water reserves; increased
soil erosion; reduction in land values and agricultural productivity; degradation of
wetlands, native range habitat and dependent species; risks to human and animal
health; and an overall negative impact on both rural and urban community life .
The damaging effects of applying large volumes of saline-sodic waters to the surface
is at the center of increasingly contentious litigation and is the largest contributing
factor to the degradation of exposed soils and water systems in the region. This
damage occurs through direct discharge of CBM waters onto surface land, leakage
from impoundment reservoirs, and increased salinity levels in irrigation waters
exposed to CBM water.
Increased levels of salinity (measured as total dissolved salts/solids or TDS) and
sodium (measured as the sodium adsorption ratio or SAR) has a severe effect on
exposed soils. Soils subjected to prolonged or intense exposure to saline-sodic
waters lose their inherent chemical properties and physical structure. In this altered
state, soils become more prone to erosion, more impermeable to water infiltration,
and often do not support either agricultural efforts or rangeland use. If left
unremediated, exposed soils become irrevocably damaged.
TDS is measured by determining the electrical conductivity (EC) of a solution.
Typically, the higher the amount of salts present, the higher the electrical
conductivity. The USDA defines water as having an EC of greater than 3.0 dS/m as
saline and a SAR value of greater than 12 as sodic. Many wells in the Powder River
Basin have EC and SAR levels exceeding published standards for all land uses other
than domestic and livestock uses. Indeed, the SAR of discharge water in some areas
of the Powder River Basin can be 10–20 times the level at which soil and plant
productivity declines and 3–4 times the level native plants and most crops can
tolerate. The US Geological Survey (USGS) has noted the trend of increasing EC
and SAR levels moving north and west through the Powder River Basin.
At current levels of exploration, declines in agricultural land use and disappearance
of native range and wetland species are already being observed in the region. Some
discharge waters are at levels which are toxic to fish, amphibians, and other aquatic
species and negative impacts have been documented. These changes and losses
will be permanent in many cases if solutions to the mitigation of CBM waters are not
developed and implemented.
Currently, 12% of the total methane production of the United States is derived from
this region, and production is expected to expand greatly (Figure 1). This demand is
driven largely by the desire to produce cheap electricity from natural gas, a national
emphasis on reducing dependence on foreign energy sources, and the relative ease
of extraction from these shallow wells. In addition, natural gas emits about half the
carbon dioxide of coal, leading to a greater reliance on gas for electricity production
as a “bridge” to cleaner energy development such as wind and solar. Due to these
factors, an estimated 30-40 trillion cubic feet of CBM in the PRB area alone is set for
extraction over the next 20 years.
Specifically, The EPA and the BLM estimate (a) ~ 10 new wells are drilled each day in
the PRB area of Wyoming; (b) ~ 50,000 new wells will be drilled in the next decade,
and (c) up to 120,000 new wells will be opened over the next 20 years across the
region. On the Montana side of the PRB, estimates range from 15,000 – 30,000 new
wells over the next decade.
Each well produces an average of 17,000 gallons of water per day, or about 6 million
gallons per year. Each well over its average lifespan (about 15 years) will discharge
as much water as 100,000 people will consume in their lifetimes. Multiplying these
water volumes by the number of projected new wells yields some highly disturbing
results for the future. By example, the current projected level of new well production
will necessitate pumping some 4 trillion gallons of discharge water to the surface in
the PRB of Wyoming alone. About 80% of the residents in this area depend on
groundwater for drinking and the vast majority of these waters will be lost for drinking,
agricultural use, or other beneficial purposes under current practices.
The primary methods for dispersal of CBM water currently are (a) impoundment and
eventual evaporation from large constructed containment ponds, (b) releasing the
water across the land surface through “managed irrigation,” or (c) direct discharge
into perennial streams and ephemeral run-off channels . Some companies are re-
injecting these waters back into sub-surface reservoirs but this approach is extremely
expensive, requires extensive EPA permitting, and is largely inapplicable in the
Powder River Basin due to hydro-geologic factors of the basin.
Because each of the water-dispersion methods identified above presents problems to
the environment, the EPA has called for development of phytoremediation-plant
based alternatives for addressing the deleterious effects of CBM development on
regional soils and water.
For more information about CBM and the effects of salinity on land and water, see
the Montana State University’s website at: http://waterquality.montana.
edu/docs/methane.shtml
Some Facts about Phytoremediation and Halophytic Plants
Phytoremediation technology is the use of plants and plant-based systems to
stabilize, manage, or remove undesirable contaminates from the environment (e.g.,
soil, water, and air). This technology area is one of the fastest emerging fields in
plant science today. The recent 6th International Conference on Phytoremediation
Technologies (December, 2009) attended by Westscape featured more than 200
research papers and posters from some 30 counties, a clear indication that plants
are increasingly being used globally as tools to remediate and manage numerous
environmental pollutants and contaminants.
Recent and on-going projects include efforts to remediate toxic levels of selenium,
boron, salts, petroleum products, organic compounds, radio isotopes, munitions, and
heavy metals, including arsenic, lead, and cadmium in the environment. However, no
such efforts have been directed at phytoremediation of water and soils impacted by
CBM development or selenium toxicities in cold-arid climates such as Montana and
Wyoming. The EPA promotes phytoremediation technology because it takes
advantage of natural plant processes and acts as a “solar driven, living machine”
technology for remediation. Sites can be remediated without removing huge volumes
of soil, pumping or moving large quantities of polluted waters, or exposing workers to
pollutants.
Traditional methods of remediation rely heavily on large equipment and often
expensive mechanical and labor-intensive procedures. In comparison,
phytoremediation is a highly cost-efficient, low-impact, and low-maintenance
alternative to mechanized-based systems. About 170 projects based on
phytoremediation are currently in place nationally, including several Superfund
locations, with many more public and private non-Superfund projects being planned
and implemented. Researchers are also employing a variety of strategies to isolate
and develop superior genotypes or populations with beneficial applications, including
genetic selection and improvement via traditional plant breeding and the use of
molecular techniques
Phytoremediation Efforts Using Ion-Accumulating Halophytes
Phytoremediation of saline-sodic and seleniferous soils (soils high in selenium) by
halophytes (salt-tolerant plants) is becoming an accepted methodology, and funding
of research and development in these areas is increasing. An estimated 10,000 salt-
tolerant species exist worldwide, with over 100 genera currently being studied for
beneficial uses. This interest is driven by increasing demands on fresh water
supplies and increased salinization of agricultural and native rangelands.
Halophytes complete their life cycle under extreme saline conditions. Indeed,
halophytes typically require some degree of salinity in their life cycle and utilize salts
to osmoregulate themselves relative to their environmental conditions.
Halophytes are usually separated into two major categories: (1) ion-excreting
halophytes, which extract salts from the soil solution and ultimately excrete them from
their tissue, and (2) ion-accumulating halophytes, which extract and retain salts within
their cellular structure (66). The halophytes being studied by Westscape in their SBIR
project are primarily ion-accumulating halophytes. All of the plants under study show
optimal growth rates at or above seawater salinity levels (600-800mM NaCl).
halophytes (highly salt tolerant plants that function in hyper-saline environments and
can sequester salts and other elements in their tissue) and delivery systems for
phytoremediation and reclamation of land and watered impacted by coal bed
methane development (CBM) in the Powder River Basin and other areas of Montana
and Wyoming. Through its SBIR grants, Westscape is working to develop a number
of native plant species for use on saline lands. These highly competitive national
grants are designed to stimulate innovative research projects that address specific
USDA focus areas while fostering relationships with small business. In 2010
Westscape was awarded a Phase II grant to continue it development and
commercialization of these halophytes and methods for delivery. Westscape is
currently utilizing its selected halophytes and other salt tolerant plants in field-scale
demonstration plots at Hailstone National Wildlife Refuge (see above).
Some Facts about Coal Bed Methane (CBM) Development and the Powder River
Basin
The U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and other agencies have called the
rapid expansion of energy development on the Rocky Mountain Front “the single
largest environmental challenge facing the western U.S." Coal bed methane gas is a
key focus of this effort. Indeed, the Powder River Basin (PRB) of Wyoming and
Montana is an area of major interest for coal bed methane (CBM) gas exploration.
Energy giants such as British Petroleum, Marathon Oil, Anadarko, Devon Energy,
Fidelity, and many other exploration companies already have a large presence in the
region.
CBM resides in underground coal seams, trapped by the pressure of large aquifers
of water which typically contain elevated levels of salts, sodium ions, and other
elements associated with methane deposits. To release CBM gas for capture, these
saline-sodic “discharge” or “product” waters must be pumped on to the surface. In
terms of quantity, CBM wells on the Wyoming side of the PRB pumped more than 900
million barrels of discharge water to the surface in 2008 (22). Each well produces an
average of 20 tons of salt being applied to the surface. Litigation brought by the
State of Montana against Wyoming and numerous other lawsuits have delayed some
new exploration, but current exploration levels are already raising concerns regarding
degradation of soil, water, and air quality; loss of drinking water reserves; increased
soil erosion; reduction in land values and agricultural productivity; degradation of
wetlands, native range habitat and dependent species; risks to human and animal
health; and an overall negative impact on both rural and urban community life .
The damaging effects of applying large volumes of saline-sodic waters to the surface
is at the center of increasingly contentious litigation and is the largest contributing
factor to the degradation of exposed soils and water systems in the region. This
damage occurs through direct discharge of CBM waters onto surface land, leakage
from impoundment reservoirs, and increased salinity levels in irrigation waters
exposed to CBM water.
Increased levels of salinity (measured as total dissolved salts/solids or TDS) and
sodium (measured as the sodium adsorption ratio or SAR) has a severe effect on
exposed soils. Soils subjected to prolonged or intense exposure to saline-sodic
waters lose their inherent chemical properties and physical structure. In this altered
state, soils become more prone to erosion, more impermeable to water infiltration,
and often do not support either agricultural efforts or rangeland use. If left
unremediated, exposed soils become irrevocably damaged.
TDS is measured by determining the electrical conductivity (EC) of a solution.
Typically, the higher the amount of salts present, the higher the electrical
conductivity. The USDA defines water as having an EC of greater than 3.0 dS/m as
saline and a SAR value of greater than 12 as sodic. Many wells in the Powder River
Basin have EC and SAR levels exceeding published standards for all land uses other
than domestic and livestock uses. Indeed, the SAR of discharge water in some areas
of the Powder River Basin can be 10–20 times the level at which soil and plant
productivity declines and 3–4 times the level native plants and most crops can
tolerate. The US Geological Survey (USGS) has noted the trend of increasing EC
and SAR levels moving north and west through the Powder River Basin.
At current levels of exploration, declines in agricultural land use and disappearance
of native range and wetland species are already being observed in the region. Some
discharge waters are at levels which are toxic to fish, amphibians, and other aquatic
species and negative impacts have been documented. These changes and losses
will be permanent in many cases if solutions to the mitigation of CBM waters are not
developed and implemented.
Currently, 12% of the total methane production of the United States is derived from
this region, and production is expected to expand greatly (Figure 1). This demand is
driven largely by the desire to produce cheap electricity from natural gas, a national
emphasis on reducing dependence on foreign energy sources, and the relative ease
of extraction from these shallow wells. In addition, natural gas emits about half the
carbon dioxide of coal, leading to a greater reliance on gas for electricity production
as a “bridge” to cleaner energy development such as wind and solar. Due to these
factors, an estimated 30-40 trillion cubic feet of CBM in the PRB area alone is set for
extraction over the next 20 years.
Specifically, The EPA and the BLM estimate (a) ~ 10 new wells are drilled each day in
the PRB area of Wyoming; (b) ~ 50,000 new wells will be drilled in the next decade,
and (c) up to 120,000 new wells will be opened over the next 20 years across the
region. On the Montana side of the PRB, estimates range from 15,000 – 30,000 new
wells over the next decade.
Each well produces an average of 17,000 gallons of water per day, or about 6 million
gallons per year. Each well over its average lifespan (about 15 years) will discharge
as much water as 100,000 people will consume in their lifetimes. Multiplying these
water volumes by the number of projected new wells yields some highly disturbing
results for the future. By example, the current projected level of new well production
will necessitate pumping some 4 trillion gallons of discharge water to the surface in
the PRB of Wyoming alone. About 80% of the residents in this area depend on
groundwater for drinking and the vast majority of these waters will be lost for drinking,
agricultural use, or other beneficial purposes under current practices.
The primary methods for dispersal of CBM water currently are (a) impoundment and
eventual evaporation from large constructed containment ponds, (b) releasing the
water across the land surface through “managed irrigation,” or (c) direct discharge
into perennial streams and ephemeral run-off channels . Some companies are re-
injecting these waters back into sub-surface reservoirs but this approach is extremely
expensive, requires extensive EPA permitting, and is largely inapplicable in the
Powder River Basin due to hydro-geologic factors of the basin.
Because each of the water-dispersion methods identified above presents problems to
the environment, the EPA has called for development of phytoremediation-plant
based alternatives for addressing the deleterious effects of CBM development on
regional soils and water.
For more information about CBM and the effects of salinity on land and water, see
the Montana State University’s website at: http://waterquality.montana.
edu/docs/methane.shtml
Some Facts about Phytoremediation and Halophytic Plants
Phytoremediation technology is the use of plants and plant-based systems to
stabilize, manage, or remove undesirable contaminates from the environment (e.g.,
soil, water, and air). This technology area is one of the fastest emerging fields in
plant science today. The recent 6th International Conference on Phytoremediation
Technologies (December, 2009) attended by Westscape featured more than 200
research papers and posters from some 30 counties, a clear indication that plants
are increasingly being used globally as tools to remediate and manage numerous
environmental pollutants and contaminants.
Recent and on-going projects include efforts to remediate toxic levels of selenium,
boron, salts, petroleum products, organic compounds, radio isotopes, munitions, and
heavy metals, including arsenic, lead, and cadmium in the environment. However, no
such efforts have been directed at phytoremediation of water and soils impacted by
CBM development or selenium toxicities in cold-arid climates such as Montana and
Wyoming. The EPA promotes phytoremediation technology because it takes
advantage of natural plant processes and acts as a “solar driven, living machine”
technology for remediation. Sites can be remediated without removing huge volumes
of soil, pumping or moving large quantities of polluted waters, or exposing workers to
pollutants.
Traditional methods of remediation rely heavily on large equipment and often
expensive mechanical and labor-intensive procedures. In comparison,
phytoremediation is a highly cost-efficient, low-impact, and low-maintenance
alternative to mechanized-based systems. About 170 projects based on
phytoremediation are currently in place nationally, including several Superfund
locations, with many more public and private non-Superfund projects being planned
and implemented. Researchers are also employing a variety of strategies to isolate
and develop superior genotypes or populations with beneficial applications, including
genetic selection and improvement via traditional plant breeding and the use of
molecular techniques
Phytoremediation Efforts Using Ion-Accumulating Halophytes
Phytoremediation of saline-sodic and seleniferous soils (soils high in selenium) by
halophytes (salt-tolerant plants) is becoming an accepted methodology, and funding
of research and development in these areas is increasing. An estimated 10,000 salt-
tolerant species exist worldwide, with over 100 genera currently being studied for
beneficial uses. This interest is driven by increasing demands on fresh water
supplies and increased salinization of agricultural and native rangelands.
Halophytes complete their life cycle under extreme saline conditions. Indeed,
halophytes typically require some degree of salinity in their life cycle and utilize salts
to osmoregulate themselves relative to their environmental conditions.
Halophytes are usually separated into two major categories: (1) ion-excreting
halophytes, which extract salts from the soil solution and ultimately excrete them from
their tissue, and (2) ion-accumulating halophytes, which extract and retain salts within
their cellular structure (66). The halophytes being studied by Westscape in their SBIR
project are primarily ion-accumulating halophytes. All of the plants under study show
optimal growth rates at or above seawater salinity levels (600-800mM NaCl).
Sarcocornia utahensis
Sarcocornia utahensis
Suaeda moqiunii
Lysimeters used to measure salt
uptake and water use by research
halophytes.
uptake and water use by research
halophytes.